An Introduction to Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is a topic at the heart of statistics. This technique belongs to a realm known as inferential statistics. Researchers from all sorts of different areas, such as psychology, marketing, and medicine, formulate hypotheses or claims about a population being studied. The ultimate goal of the research is to determine the validity of these claims. Carefully designed statistical experiments obtain sample data from the population. The data is in turn used to test the accuracy of a hypothesis concerning a population. The Rare Event Rule Hypothesis tests are based upon the field of mathematics known as probability. Probability gives us a way to quantify how likely it is for an event to occur. The underlying assumption for all inferential statistics deals with rare events, which is why probability is used so extensively. The rare event rule states that if an assumption is made and the probability of a certain observed event is very small, then the assumption is most likely incorrect. The basic idea here is that we test a claim by distinguishing between two different things: An event that easily occurs by chance.An event that is highly unlikely to occur by chance. If a highly unlikely event occurs, then we explain this by stating that a rare event really did take place, or that the assumption we started with was not true. Prognosticators and Probability As an example to intuitively grasp the ideas behind hypothesis testing, we’ll consider the following story. It’s a beautiful day outside so you decided to go on a walk. While you are walking you are confronted by a mysterious stranger. â€Å"Do not be alarmed,† he says, â€Å"this is your lucky day. I am a seer of seers and a prognosticator of prognosticators. I can predict the future, and do it with greater accuracy than anyone else. In fact, 95% of the time I’m right. For a mere $1000, I will give you the winning lottery ticket numbers for the next ten weeks. You‘ll be almost sure of winning once, and probably several times.† This sounds too good to be true, but you are intrigued. â€Å"Prove it,† you reply. â€Å"Show me that you really can predict the future, then I’ll consider your offer.† â€Å"Of course. I can‘t give you any winning lottery numbers for free though. But I will show you my powers as follows. In this sealed envelope is a sheet of paper numbered 1 through 100, with heads or tails written after each of them. When you go home, flip a coin 100 times and record the results in the order that you get them. Then open the envelope and compare the two lists. My list will accurately match at least 95 of your coin tosses.† You take the envelope with a skeptical look. â€Å"I will be here tomorrow at this same time if you decide to take me up on my offer.† As you walk back home, you assume that the stranger has thought up a creative way to con people out of their money. Nevertheless, when you get back home, you flip a coin and write down which tosses give you heads, and which ones are tails. Then you open the envelope and compare the two lists. If the lists only match in 49 places, you would conclude that the stranger is at best deluded and at worse conducting some sort of scam. After all, chance alone would result in being correct about one half of the time. If this is the case, you would probably change your walking route for a few weeks. On the other hand, what if the lists matched 96 times? The likelihood of this occurring by chance is extremely small. Due to the fact that predicting 96 of 100 coin tosses is exceptionally improbable, you conclude that your assumption about the stranger was incorrect and he can indeed predict the future. The Formal Procedure This example illustrates the idea behind hypothesis testing and is a good introduction to further study. The exact procedure requires specialized terminology and a step by step procedure, but the thinking is the same. The rare event rule provides the ammunition to reject one hypothesis and accept an alternate one.

The Key Beliefs Within Two Religious Traditions - 4561 Words

Paige Frampton Religious Studies 2015 AS 90823 BLUE Explain the key beliefs within two religious traditions in a relation to a significant religious question. Life after death is a very controversial topic around the world and in society. Throughout our lives, we often wonder ‘what happens when we die?’. There are many different beliefs as to what happens to our bodies and to our souls after we die. Religion provides answers to this question, however different religions offer different beliefs and answers to this question. There are two basic kinds of religion in this world: Eastern and Western. Through learning about the key beliefs of Catholics and Hindus I have been able to learn some similar and some different perspectives on the forever debatable question ‘what happens when we die?’. The official teaching of the Catholic Church is located in the book ‘the Catechism of the Catholic Church’ (CCC). Which is based on the teachings of Jesus in the New Testament. Catholics believe that Jesus died on the cross for us, he sacrificed himself for us by doing this, to redeem our sins so that we can go to heaven to be with Christ for eternity. â€Å"For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.† (John 3:16) Some symbols in the Catholic faith also relate to our beliefs on life after death, such as the cross. The crossShow MoreRelatedGrand Canyon Int 244 Complete Course1616 Words   |  7 Pagesunderstandings and beliefs, do you agree with this definition? Explain your reasoning. Cite references where possible. 5 postsRe:Topic 1 DQ 1 Identify basic beliefs and practices of the various the forms of historical Christianity. Do identify with these? Explain why or why not. Cite references where possible. WEEK 2 DQ 1 Consider the question of whether Judaism is essentially a religion, a race, a culture, or something else. Support your response by making reference to key events, individualsRead MoreGrand Canyon Int 244 All Assignments1171 Words   |  5 Pagespersonal reflection of 1,000 – 1,250 words, consider how a Christian might benefit from a study of other religions by addressing the following: 1. Can Christian dialogue with other religious traditions be a part of the calling to proclaim the Gospel? 2. What can Christians learn from other religious traditions? 3. Can religious experiences or teachings in other faiths be validated? 4. How can Christians think critically about their encounters with members of other faiths? 5. Be sure to support yourRead MoreComparative Methods Of Fredericks And Clooney917 Words   |  4 Pagesthe call of a common duty.† Within this situation, religiously diverse world is also one of the most challenges to draw diverse believers together and to treasure what faiths have to share with and learn from other religions. 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In this essay it will discuss why some religious traditions in South East Asia oppose violenceRead MoreThe Impact of the Rationalization Process on Culture1283 Words   |  5 PagesRationalization was the process through which magical, supernatural and religious ideas lose cultural importance in a society and fades away completely, and ideas based on science and practical calculation become the dominant reliance. Rationalization also involves the development of forms of social organizations who strive to achieve precise goals by any efficient means. This type of rationalization is seen in the development of modern business corporations and of bureaucracy. These organizationsRead MoreChallenges of Religious Pluralism Essay1159 Words   |  5 Pagesbeen more of a family affair. What this means is that despite the different groupings, almost all major religions have been united u nder the same American experience. Almost all the main religious denominations have been required to conform to the dictates of Protestantism. Maybe this has been derived from the belief that almost all of these groupings have been responsible for shaping America as we know it today. However, many things have happened in the past few decades to change the way religionsRead MorePope John Chritianity960 Words   |  4 PagesDiscuss the relationship between at least TWO of the aspects shown in the diagram below and the way they contribute to Christianity as a living religious tradition The application of Christian ethics is a fundamental practice in an adherent’s life, assisting them in following God’s will. The most important representation of these ethics being used in practice is by the ultimate model of goodness, Jesus Christ. Jesus’ words and actions reflect the key foundations of ethical teachings, such as agapeRead MoreThree Main Religions in the Continent of Asia907 Words   |  4 Pagesdifferent practices, rituals, and teachings but also have some similarities. Each religion has their own holy book, key cites, worship places, and special religious holidays. In Southwest Asia, your religion is based on your family history, beliefs, customs, and traditions. The first religion to get founded was Judaism, nearly four thousand years ago. Judaism originated as the beliefs and practices of the people known as Israel. There are records that this religion traces back from the GodRead MoreIslam : A Unique Religion1208 Words   |  5 PagesKa’aba. Both Islam and Christian religions were based off of tradition and customs from the tribe’s fathers before them. Their religious customs ran rapid throughout the Mediterranean and especially in the town of Mecca. That is until a new religion was created, and shook their core beliefs to the core, questioning and aspiring for the unknown. This religion would come from the preaching of Muhammad, and not only shared some similar traditions but also similar early formations with the Christian religionRead MoreEffective Patient Centered, Culturally Competent, Holistic Care1191 Words   |  5 Pages The effective patient-centered, culturally competent, holistic care can be provided o nly by culturally competent nurses, able to â€Å"recognize and understand the differences in their culture and the culture of others; to respect other s values, beliefs, and expectations.†(Edelman, Kudzma, Mandle, 2014). In order to provide quality, safe and efficient care and meet patient s needs, nurses must expand their cultural knowledge, be aware about patient s culture, and have â€Å"an honest desire to disregard

The Morning Of The world as we know it free essay sample

The Morning Of Indi/ Alt/ Pop Tragic Hero Records The Morning OF, previously known as Dont Pass Go was formed in Newborough, NY. The band has a dynamic sound coming into the modern music scene by incorporating a constant collaboration of two lead vocals, female vocalist Jessica Leplon and male vocalist Justin Wiley. The music in The Morning Ofs sound pulls in a few different directions, but almost each song I found an un tampered raw quality which has almost disappeared. The band has reached 1,000,000 plays on PureVolume.com and 2,000,000 on Myspace.com. Their first national full length title The World as We Know It was released on January 29th, 2008 and debuted on the Billboard Heatseekers chart at # 18. Putting aside the vocalist Jessica and Justin, on Bass is Abir Hossain, guitar/piano is Chris Petrosino, and Rob Mccurdy on guitar. I listened to The World As We Know It it seems to have a fun, even quarky quality. We will write a custom essay sample on The Morning Of The world as we know it or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In my opinion these are radio worthy. #1. Reverie Just get me out of this city tonight/ an anthem that I know many of us find ourselves screaming inside. #2. The sound of something secure This song sparks alternative rock. #3. Shrine and adorable feel good song. #4. The world as we know it Is unique in the way they combine a hope filled pop tune with the actual words spoken by Martin Luther King Jr. during is I Have a Dream speech, closing out this cleverly arranged, inspiring yet interesting song. The black and white man, Jews, Gentiles, Protestants, Catholics will be able to join hands. Free At Last! Free At Last! Thank God almighty we are free at last! www.Myspace.comTheMorningOf Review By: Amanda Paige The Morning Of The world as we know it free essay sample The Morning Of Indi/ Alt/ Pop Tragic Hero Records The Morning OF, previously known as Dont Pass Go was formed in Newborough, NY. The band has a dynamic sound coming into the modern music scene by incorporating a constant collaboration of two lead vocals, female vocalist Jessica Leplon and male vocalist Justin Wiley. The music in The Morning Ofs sound pulls in a few different directions, but almost each song I found an un tampered raw quality which has almost disappeared. The band has reached 1,000,000 plays on PureVolume.com and 2,000,000 on Myspace.com. Their first national full length title The World as We Know It was released on January 29th, 2008 and debuted on the Billboard Heatseekers chart at # 18. Putting aside the vocalist Jessica and Justin, on Bass is Abir Hossain, guitar/piano is Chris Petrosino, and Rob Mccurdy on guitar. I listened to The World As We Know It it seems to have a fun, even quarky quality. We will write a custom essay sample on The Morning Of The world as we know it or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In my opinion these are radio worthy. #1. Reverie Just get me out of this city tonight/ an anthem that I know many of us find ourselves screaming inside. #2. The sound of something secure This song sparks alternative rock. #3. Shrine and adorable feel good song. #4. The world as we know it Is unique in the way they combine a hope filled pop tune with the actual words spoken by Martin Luther King Jr. during is I Have a Dream speech, closing out this cleverly arranged, inspiring yet interesting song. The black and white man, Jews, Gentiles, Protestants, Catholics will be able to join hands. Free At Last! Free At Last! Thank God almighty we are free at last! www.Myspace.comTheMorningOf Review By: Amanda Paige

First Year of Higher Education

Question: Write an essay on first year experience of higher education? Answer: I started my higher education and transitioned from high school to college. It became very difficult for me manage the course as I had the characteristic to procrastinate and get easily distracted. The major problem in the first year of my college was to decide as to concentrate on which field. This is because in the initial year I was not sure about what I was really interested in. Once I decided the field in which I am interested, it seemed to be easy to tackle things but in the reality, the effort in the college just tripled from the effort that I exerted in high school. The volume of homework has increased and the quizzes, tests and assignments seemed to be tougher than the ones that were done in the high school. Analyzing the college years and starting from the first year, there were substantial improvement in the productivity and growth in my career and life. The first hurdle that I had to face is the huge volume of homework. Doing the homework was not of a problem as the homework allowed me gain new ideas and knowledge about different topics. When I was in high school, sometimes the homework had to be done within the same day, it is then that I face the difficult to manage my homework. In College the volume of the homework are so many that I had to prioritize them in order to complete within the deadline. This allowed me to categorize my homework in terms of the degree of time consuming (Hirt, 2005). Suppose that homework is most time consuming and I cater to this homework first. Again suppose that homework carries a lot of points then I try to finish the homework on a priority basis. One of the struggles of my life after getting enrolled in the college is the poor performance in the quizzes and midterms. I devote a lot of time to studies but the more I prepare the more I perform poor in the tests. I believe that the tests are like personal assessment and it does not have any relation with the numbers rather the idea of the test must be to identify whether the students have acquired correct and knowledge about a particular subject. The first year of college focuses on the real life and its interpretation. So I decided that I had to make changes in my approach to exams. I get panicky and nervous before the day of the exam or tests. The next thing that I reformed was my approach towards the tests and quizzes. I stopped getting nervous before the tests and kept motivating myself that I am well prepared and can perform well (Kyung-Hwa Lee, à ªÃ‚ ¹Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¬Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ªÃ‚ ²Ã‚ ½ and Lew Kyounghoon, 2013). This helped me to stay calm before and during the test. Even tually I improved and started performing well. In the first year of my college I faced a lot of challenges in writing. This is because in high school the writing style was simple and easy to assemble. The writing style in the college is different and difficult as it had a distinct writing guidelines, structure and level of writing. In this context, the professors are strict in marking the answer so I had to be more cautious regarding my writing style (Swick, 2009). The writing centre had helped me a lot to improve my writing skill by providing me with the comments at each level of my writing. The improvement of my writing was ensured when each professor made great comments which encouraged me (Smith and Wertlieb, 2005). Writing had always been my weakness and it was a challenge for me to overcome it. Finally, I receive grade of B+ level on my writing considering the fact that I received B level grade in the initial period of first year. This is more like an achievement for me. The first year of college was like a character and personality building year. One of the assignments that I had to complete was done in the form of group projects. Initially I faced a lot of problems in coordinating with the other group members as different students had different views and opinions about a particular topic. It became difficult for the group to come to a common conclusion. In the beginning of the college, I had to handle a similar group project where I found multiple disagreements among the members. I became relentless and failed in that group project. It is then I realized that this is e a part of shaping my nature. I took up the challenge and participated in more of the group project. This enabled me to develop communication skill and working within teams. I developed the skill of concluding the opinions all of the members so that no one is offended regarding their involvement in the project. Gradually, I started participating in more of group projects and performed quite well. On the first day of my college I encountered with an amiable Professor who guided me to my class as I was unable to find it. Thereafter The Professor maintained a cordial relationship with me. I later found out he is hailed from mathematical background and since I had problems in numbers, I often landed in the teachers room to seek his advice and suggestion regarding a particular mathematical problem. The other professors are also friendly and cooperative and the supported and helped me a lot in my academics. It is the professors that helped me to improve my knowledge on any subject. They took the initiative to stay after the class dissolves to help the weak students in enhancing their understanding about the lessons that were taught in the class. I always found the professors to be cooperative in helping the students and introduced a special class after the actual class gets over which the college authorities named as doubt clearing class. This class had helped many students to clea r out all their problems and doubts about the lessons. And no doubt it also helped me to gain better understanding of the lessons (WOOSLEY, 2005). Another major problem that I faced in the beginning of the first year was interaction problems. The college had students enrolled from different cultural and ethnic background which was not prevalent in the high school framework. Establishing an interaction with a particular student who hailed from a different cultural background was difficult for me. I felt that our opinions and views would not be met and there can be conflicts and disagreement between us which will cause a problem in their relationship. As time passed I started made friends from different cultures and found that it was a myth that I had in my minds regarding the culture clash (WOOSLEY, 2005). I found that students from different cultural backgrounds were friendly and pleasant in their behavior and I made couple of friends who hail from different ethnic background. The next good thing that I learned in the initial years is the aspect of time management. As such in the high school there wasnt any time exact framework unlike in college where the assignments and the projects had to be submitted on time and failure to do so would have points deducted. It was once that I failed to submit an assignment on time and got points deducted from the curriculum and it is then I learnt to respect time. I stopped procrastinating and completed the assignments and projects on time without any delay and point deduction. Thus, the overall experience on the first year of my college was personality building and knowledge gathering that will help me in the future. Before entering college I had a perspective of having a fun-filled life with less tension and more of excitement but after attending the first few classes, I understood that college is not just a fun-filled place but also an informative and career building place beneficial for my future. Going back to the first year of college, I can recall the way I improved my writing skills, developed feeling of union, established interaction and communication of friends from varied cultures, learnt to develop cordial relationship with the professors and value time the most (WOOSLEY, 2005). The first year of my college seemed to be challenging for me as the transition from high school is always difficult for a freshman. I shall imbibe all the good learning and memories of the first year in college and make use of them for future enhancement. References Hirt, J. (2005). Challenging and Supporting the First-Year Student: A Handbook for Improving the First Year of College.Journal of College Student Development, 46(5), pp.561-564. Kyung-Hwa Lee, à ªÃ‚ ¹Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¬Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ªÃ‚ ²Ã‚ ½, and Lew Kyounghoon, (2013). The Relationship of Parental Involvement, College Life Adaptation and Academic Achievement in First Year College Students.Asian Journal of Education, 14(3), pp.184-201. Smith, J. and Wertlieb, E. (2005). Do First-Year College Students' Expectations Align with their First-Year Experiences?.Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 42(2). Swick, E. (2009).Writing better English for ESL learners. Chicago, IL: McGraw-Hill. WOOSLEY, S. (2005). SURVEY RESPONSE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES AMONG FIRST-YEAR COLLEGE STUDENTS.Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory and Practice, 6(4), pp.413-423.